Is History an art, a science or a craft Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Is History an art, a science or a craft - Essay Example Cosmic, organic history and geologic developments are some of the events that are considered part of (human) history1. Meaning of art An art on the other hand is a study of creative skill or the study of a collection of disciplines which produce artworks which are driven by personal drive, in order to convey mood, a message or symbolism, for the viewer to analyse and interpret. Arts stimulate an individual’s emotions, thoughts, ideas and beliefs through the senses2. Meaning of science The phrase science derives its origin from the Latin phrase, scentia, meaning knowledge. As such, the phrase denotes science as a study of a systematic field of study which compiles and organises knowledge in the form of verifiable explanations and predictions concerning the universe and the life forms therein. Derry3 explains how classical qualifications such as the one passed by Aristotle conversely makes science the study of the body of reliable knowledge, or the study of knowledge which are r ationally and logically explainable. ... This may also involve the collection and transmission of knowledge about a craft. Because of this, guilds are inclusive of skilled amateurs, professional artisans and even beginners who may harbour specific interests in a given craft. There are series of tests to evaluate skills and provide frameworks for training new crafters. There has been a lack of consensus regarding the classification of crafts, with some academicians placing crafts as a hybrid between art and science, given that art relies on technique and talent, and science, knowledge4. How history ties in with the definitions above Interestingly enough, it is a matter of striking uniqueness that history ties with the definitions that have been advanced above. For one, one can see history as being tied to art since art is the study of creative skill or the study of a collection of disciplines which produce artworks which are driven by personal drive. The applicability of this standpoint to history is underscored by the fact that the creative skill mentioned above is critical for a historian to imagine a hypothetical problem, before he goes ahead to solve that specific problem by testing it. For instance, if a historian wants to establish the applicability and future of state competitiveness in international relations (as is envisioned in the theory of realism), then that academician my have to revisit the era between 1787 and 1990. This is because, it is in 1787 that the French Revolution took place, and thereby sparking the need for the Concert of Europe. The politics of Europe in turn triggered the World War I and II, before catalyasing the emergence of the Cold War. The definition of science partly qualifies history, given that science

An empirical study on how international projects differ from standard Research Paper

An empirical study on how international projects differ from standard projects - Research Paper Example Notwithstanding the popularity of the said issues, studies show that they have met a number of disasters. In fact, only a small percentage of the same has relatively succeeded. It, is however, also argued that there are still a number of failures and problems that are associated with project management (Perkins 1999). In this regard, policy analysts have recommended the application of radical change in project management in the hopes of ensuring the success of international project (Cleveland and Ireland 2007). Moreover, it was also discovered that there is also a need to incorporate modern techniques that are deemed appropriate international projects (Zajda 2005; Grisham 2009). Lientz and Rea (2003) mention the following factors as those which contribute to the complexity of international projects which must be dealt with to guarantee its success: â€Å"(1) cultural and social differences existing amongst the members of the firms, (2) cultural and social differences amongst countri es and within countries, (3) languages and dialect variations, (4) religious practices, (5) legal, regulatory and reporting requirements, (6) technology and level differences in different areas, (7) infrastructure variations, and lastly, (8) time zone differences. Undoubtedly, the presence of the said factors contributes to the existence of the differences between the international projects and the standard projects (Cleveland and Ireland 2007). ... Why are they more complex, taking attributes such as organizations, systems and technologies, society, company culture, self-interest, regulation, costs, risks, etc. into consideration? In relation to this, the research also aims to either validate or falsify this hypothesis: International projects differ from standard projects; with the former being more complex than the latter due to attributes such as organizations, systems and technologies, society, company culture, self-interest, regulation, costs, risks, etc. Relevance of the Topic As reflected by the section dealing with the research question the hypothesis related to this, this research focuses on the examination of international projects and how they differ from standard ones, taking various factors such as organizations, systems and technologies, society, institutional culture, self-interest, regulation, costs, risks, etc. into consideration. Thus, the relevance of the same is underscored because of its capacity to help the researcher reflect upon the concepts and notions present throughout the entire paper. Aside from the same, the findings of this research shall also help the researcher enhance his professional experience. The importance of the study also lies on the fact that it helps the success of the international projects. Apparently, research points out that due to the complexity of the international projects as well as the failure of project managers to properly respond to this has contributed to its partial success. In this regard, this research offers a perspective on how international projects differ from standard projects due to the complexity of its environment. Hence, international project managers shall be presented with solutions that

The Work-Family Interface Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Work-Family Interface - Assignment Example My family bill of rights considers the need for flexible working hours and right for pro-rated benefits for reduced working hours in order to ensure equity in compensation after reduction of the working hours (Major & Burke, 2013). Furthermore, I believe my family bill of rights is more comprehensive and better since it grants transport benefits and on-site clinical, counseling and physical exercise facilities in order to reduce job-related stresses. Accordingly, my bill of rights has provided for paid vacations and holiday visits. The rights that I have identified in my Workers’ bill of rights are not universally accessible. Some of the rights that are universally accessible include the right to equal opportunities and safeguards from discrimination due to the various laws such as the Title VII of the Civil Rights Act 1964, the American with disabilities Act and various regulations of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). The workers have access to fair disciplinary and dismissal procedures. However, the workers lack access to fair salaries and wages due to the low minimum wage requirement, the high influx of immigrant workers and high unemployment rate in the economy. The workers have no access to adequate health insurance cover and retirement benefit plans since there are stringent regulations of enforcing such rights (Major & Burke, 2013). Private companies cannot provide share-ownership plans due to the nature of their business organization while some companies have instituted measure s of discouraging their employees from joining labor unions. The desire by employees to maximize production has led to excessive working hours especially for the casual workers and such employers have failed to provide overtime pay for work in excess of 40 hours per week due to lack of clear legislation to guide the number of official working hours per week. One of the work-family policies that promotes work-life balance among employees is the

An empirical study on how international projects differ from standard Research Paper

An empirical study on how international projects differ from standard projects - Research Paper Example Notwithstanding the popularity of the said issues, studies show that they have met a number of disasters. In fact, only a small percentage of the same has relatively succeeded. It, is however, also argued that there are still a number of failures and problems that are associated with project management (Perkins 1999). In this regard, policy analysts have recommended the application of radical change in project management in the hopes of ensuring the success of international project (Cleveland and Ireland 2007). Moreover, it was also discovered that there is also a need to incorporate modern techniques that are deemed appropriate international projects (Zajda 2005; Grisham 2009). Lientz and Rea (2003) mention the following factors as those which contribute to the complexity of international projects which must be dealt with to guarantee its success: â€Å"(1) cultural and social differences existing amongst the members of the firms, (2) cultural and social differences amongst countri es and within countries, (3) languages and dialect variations, (4) religious practices, (5) legal, regulatory and reporting requirements, (6) technology and level differences in different areas, (7) infrastructure variations, and lastly, (8) time zone differences. Undoubtedly, the presence of the said factors contributes to the existence of the differences between the international projects and the standard projects (Cleveland and Ireland 2007). ... Why are they more complex, taking attributes such as organizations, systems and technologies, society, company culture, self-interest, regulation, costs, risks, etc. into consideration? In relation to this, the research also aims to either validate or falsify this hypothesis: International projects differ from standard projects; with the former being more complex than the latter due to attributes such as organizations, systems and technologies, society, company culture, self-interest, regulation, costs, risks, etc. Relevance of the Topic As reflected by the section dealing with the research question the hypothesis related to this, this research focuses on the examination of international projects and how they differ from standard ones, taking various factors such as organizations, systems and technologies, society, institutional culture, self-interest, regulation, costs, risks, etc. into consideration. Thus, the relevance of the same is underscored because of its capacity to help the researcher reflect upon the concepts and notions present throughout the entire paper. Aside from the same, the findings of this research shall also help the researcher enhance his professional experience. The importance of the study also lies on the fact that it helps the success of the international projects. Apparently, research points out that due to the complexity of the international projects as well as the failure of project managers to properly respond to this has contributed to its partial success. In this regard, this research offers a perspective on how international projects differ from standard projects due to the complexity of its environment. Hence, international project managers shall be presented with solutions that

Discuss Chinese cosmology and its meanings and implications in early Essay

Discuss Chinese cosmology and its meanings and implications in early Chinese political culture - Essay Example These phases also refer to the different applications of reality, including the five directions, the five tastes, smells, colours, viscera and the five classifications of flora and fauna (Faure, 2005). Such general theme applies a suspension of thought with everything having its place and each place having a corresponding value. In effect, to find something means discovering and controlling it. These elements of cosmology will be discussed based on its meanings and implications in early Chinese political culture. A general background of Chinese cosmology will first be established, and then followed by more specific discussions on political culture during the early Chinese period. Body Chinese cosmology is based on the concept of cosmic order, which is the foundation of all existence, and also the primary rule in all cosmic relations and developments. The universe is therefore considered a self-contained and dynamic object operating based on its basic pattern. Such pattern has often b een considered as Dao by Chinese philosophers (Liu, 2006). This Dao has various interrelated elements. The term â€Å"way† has been related to â€Å"path† or â€Å"road† (Liu, 2006). Way is therefore related to the proper or the right way of acting or doing something or in another sense, the proper order which emanates in doing something right. Dao implies an all encompassing entelechy, a life-sustaining force supporting the creation of various things (Liu, 2006). Dao in effect, covers the whole cosmos from its birth or creation. Moreover, Dao refers to cosmic order and in some ways, is considered the truth or reality. Within the holistic cosmic understanding, this cosmic order covers majority of human relations and affairs (Liu, 2006). In effect, Dao includes a moral implication, being the proper way of states taking part in the human world. As Dao is considered the â€Å"right way,† it also represents the way which should be taken by individuals. In the more overreaching sense, Dao represents the highest moral standard for humans. Qi is also another element of Chinese cosmology, very much relating to the concept of Dao. There is no definite English translation for qi, but in general it is understood as something referring to energy, life-flows, and spirit (Liu, 2006). Chinese cosmology considers qi as a precursor to matter with the elemental breaking up of qi forming matter. All matters are made up of qi and levels of purity often indicate the different degrees of existence (Liu, 2006). Humans are perceived as possessing the purest qi with lower animals having less pure qi. Qi breaks down, however it is never consumed or diminished (Ames, 2005). Qi covers the universe with the universe representing the totality of qi being constantly mobilized and changed. The cosmos is therefore perceived as inclusive of qi without having a will or mind of its own (Ames, 2005). Such force covers most aspects of the cosmos, with all matters being connected as a strong organic whole. Chinese cosmology has been considered correlative with cosmologies being understood as frameworks of ideas which manage the universe as an ordered tool, evaluating it in relation to space, time, and motion, and populating it with humans, spirits, gods, and demons (Wang, 2000). Chinese cosmology therefore includes a comprehensive system of connected networks, supported by interlinked pairs (based on Yin-Yang), fours (based on the four directions), fives, (based on five phrases or Wuxing), and

Admitted to hospital Essay Example for Free

Admitted to hospital Essay As the days passed, Mr. Glen succeeded. Now he started to teach her how to use a typewriter. She picked up his instructions very quickly. In some days she became able to write ten words in one minute. Unfortunately she failed in her exams. She cried a lot because she thought that her work was totally dark but Mr. Glen tried to give her understanding that you could try again. He told her Your work wasnt dark. It was very psychedelic. Dont lose hope. You will get success someday. Near eight O clock in the evening suddenly they made a plan to go out to eat ice cream. When they reached the ice cream shop, Mr. Glen asked Lorraine to sit on the bench and he would be back with the ice cream. She agreed and Mr. Glen went towards the ice cream shop but at once he forgot every thing even about himself: who he was and why he come there. He went back to home but unfortunately Lorraine was waiting for him. Propitiously the teacher at Lorraines university was passing that street where Lorraine was sitting. He took Lorraine with him and dropped her in her home. Lorraine opened the door of her room; Mr.  Glen was sat there. Lorraine asked her why you left me there and return home? . Mr. Glen didnt reply because he didnt know what was going on. He started to forget every thing even Lorraine because of his old age. Lorraine got frightened that if her teacher forget every thing what would happen with her future. Her parents were able to understand her sign language so she spoke to her father about her teachers health. So Mr. Callam decided that he needed doctors treatment so he got admitted to hospital. Every evening Lorraine went to the hospital to meet her teacher. She had a hope that he would be cured eventually. Chapter 4 Now Lorraine is fourty years old. She had a graduation day at her university. The principal of her university announced that Lorraine is the pride of his university. He asked her to come on the stage to get an award by him for achieving graduation. At last she fulfilled the dream of her teacher Mr. Glen. Her principal told her to express her feelings. Her parents were also present there so her mother translated her signs for other people. She said I got this level just because of my honorable teacher Mr. Glen. He worked very hard and he spends his whole life towards making my future. He taught me manners, how to spend my life. Because of him, I learnt how to eat. He taught me all the things that were impossible. He taught me dark is not black. It is the colour of achievement, colour of knowledge. She told the audience that she wanted her teacher Mr. Glen to come there and look at her with her precious award but unfortunately he couldnt come. She said, If he came here I am sure that he would be happier than me because today I have completed his dream. Then Lorraine went to the hospital to show her award to Mr. Glen. She said to him Look at this award which you have wanted for fourty years. Today I have completed your dream. Unfortunately, he didnt remember anything. Now she started trying her best to give him his memorial. She thought that Mr. Glen was the best teacher in the whole world who taught her to achieve what was impossible. Moral: Nothing is impossible if we work hard!

Static And Dynamic Spectrum Allocation Computer Science Essay

Static And Dynamic Spectrum Allocation Computer Science Essay As the requirements of the wireless services keep growing, the number of variant wireless standards increases, which consequently imposes increasing stress on the fixed and limited radio spectrum. However, extensive measurements reported indicate that large part of licensed bands is in low utilization, as show in Figure 2.1. Spectrum utilization is strongly depended on place and time. Fixed spectrum allocation wastes resources. [1] Figure .1 Spectrum Utilization Nowadays applications require more bandwidth for better services. Electromagnetic spectrum, however, is a kind of limited natural resource as well as water and crude oil. Recent studies noted the poor utilization of traditional exclusive spectrum assignment. An intuitional way to improve the sparse usage is to allow an unlicensed user to access the resource during idle time. We can improve efficiency by allowing unlicensed users to exploit spectrum whenever it would not cause interference to licensed users. 2.2 Spectrum Assignment Policy: Why A fixed spectrum fraction is assigned to licensed holders on a long term basis for large geographical regions. Figure 2.2 show fixed spectrum assignment to different standards. Figure 2.2 Spectrum Assignment policy According to Federal Communications Commission (FCC), this exclusive assignment limits the usage and results in many spectrum holes, also called white space. It shows most traffic over wireless network concentrates on particular frequency, in particular region, at particular time while a significant amount of the spectrum remains unused. Throughout the whole spectra, utilization varies from 15% to 85% in frequency, time and geographic domains. Much worse is that, 90% of the time, certain portions of licensed bands are unoccupied. As users demand for better quality of services and higher data rate, efficient spectrum usage is becoming a critical issue. [2] 2.3 Static and Dynamic Spectrum Allocation: There has been numerous protocol standards on the wireless spectrum that rely on a static spectrum allocation policy under which each licensed spectrum band is statically assigned to the specific licensed service and its users. Once a spectrum band is assigned to a certain service, its allocation is not allowed to change. However, a new concept of dynamic spectrum allocation has become necessary to overcome critical limitations of the traditional static al location scheme. Recent studies have shown that the use of static spectrum allocation has degraded spectral efficiency significantly. Moreover, current standards cannot guarantee the prevention of unexpected interruptions by wireless network users. To alleviate these problems, FCC has recently suggested a new concept of cognitive radio networks (CRNs) that serves as a framework in realizing dynamic spectrum allocation. It requires the enhancement of current PHY and MAC protocols to adopt spectrum-agile features. The basic idea of s pectrum agility is to allow secondary users (SUs) or unlicensed users to access licensed spectrum bands as far as they do not produce undesirable interference with the licensed users. To achieve this goal, SUs must monitor each channelà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s usage pattern by its PUs to identify spectrum holes or opportunities to exploit. Whenever SUs find a channel that can be utilized without interfering with its PUs, it can be assigned to and will be shared by the SUs. The SUs are also responsible for monitoring returning PUs on the channel they are currently using so as to promptly vacate the channel in such a case. [3] 2.4 Unlicensed Spectrum: There are two major advantages of using unlicensed spectrum. First, there is no requirement to register for using the spectrum and its deployment is very fast and cost effective as well. Second major advantage of using unlicensed spectrum is that it is shared among users which is indeed useful for wireless systems in which devices can dynamically change its position like notebooks, cell phones, etc. It would not be practical to require the owners of a portable device to acquire a license that covers every place they may ever wish the system to operate. Fixed applications that transmit sporadically or at fluctuating rates can also make more efficient use of unlicensed spectrum; when one is not transmitting, another can. It has been shown that cellular systems could carry significantly more traffic if they shared spectrum dynamically, provided that competing firms are willing to adopt cooperative strategies that serve their common interest. Metropolitan area networks carrying bursty da ta traffic could expect even greater efficiency gains, if competing networks can be motivated to adopt such techniques. [11] 2.4.1 ISM band: The industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands were originally reserved internationally for the use of RF electromagnetic fields for industrial, scientific and medical purposes other than communications. Figure 2.3 shows spectrum of ISM band. [13] Figure 2.3: ISM Band There are many factors which raises interest for using these bands such as time consuming standardization. Also, there is no requirement of registering the users using these bands, no particular restrictions on users for their usage and users can use the products anywhere at any place. There is no license fee for this band and the devices using these bands are cost effective. Many wireless communication standards are aimed to use unlicensed ISM band because it is easier to coexist with existing wireless networks than to assign a new separate empty spectrum. Currently most of spectrums for wireless communication are saturated. There are heavy interference and competition in ISM band because many wireless devices flow into this frequency area. On the contrary, spectrums of TV broadcasting, digital TV and wireless microphone tend to inactive depend on devicesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ location or time. In TV broadcasting, the spectrum is busy in TV broadcasting hours, but no one can use the spe ctrum when broadcasting signs off. Also TV spectrum is changed in compliance with localization. The 2.4 GHz ISM band has become particularly popular in last few years such as household and virtually all commercial buildings are likely to have equipment that operates in this band. Applications include wireless LANs, Bluetooth and infrared devices for short range communication and for Advanced Traveler Information and Management Systems like door openers for garage, home audio system, cordless phones, remote control, etc. 2.5 Wireless Regional Area Network (IEEE 802.22): IEEE 802.22 Working Group came in to being in November 2004 with a purpose of making a standard for wireless regional area network (WRAN) capable of using cognitive radio technology. According to its technical specifications, 802.22 WRAN systems will operate on the VHF/UHF TV bands ranging from 54 MHz to 862 MHz. The target of WRAN is to provide wireless broadband access with the average coverage radius of 33 km and can go up to 100km. The main target is to make unlicensed access to unused TV spectrum. In particular, 802.22 WRAN systems will be able to sense the spectrum, identify unused TV channels, and utilize these channels to provide broadband services for fixed wireless subscribers. While doing so, they must make sure that there is no undesirable interference with licensed users. Figure 2.4 shows the WRAN standards and application.[8] Figure 2.4: WRAN IEEE 802.22 is a standard for Wireless Regional Area Network (WRAN) which uses unused spectrum (spectrum whole) in the TV frequency spectrum on a non-interference basis. This standard is developed with the intent to give broadband internet coverage in rural areas with acceptable performance comparing with performance of DSL and cable modems. The television spectrum was selected for this application due to its propagation characteristics. Cognitive radios will reuse TV spectrum in an opportunistic way by detecting if the channel is occupied before using it. 2.6 Summary: Due to the rapid growth of wireless services, various wireless standards have been developed which are becoming a cause of major stress in fixed and limited spectrum. However fixed spectrum results in low utilization of spectrum resources as per the spectrum assignment policy. Now days, applications require more spectrum for efficient services. The fixed spectrum is not convenient for these services. Therefore, this problem can be improved efficiently by allowing unlicensed users to exploit spectrum whenever it would not cause interference to licensed users. The fixed spectrum policy that relies on a static spectrum allocation policy under which each licensed spectrum band is statically assigned to the specific licensed service and its users and its allocation is not allowed to change. In order to solve this issue a new concept of dynamic spectrum allocation also known as unlicensed spectrum policy has become necessary to overcome critical limitations of the traditional static allocation scheme. To make this concept more efficient, a new technology called cognitive radio technology has been developed. The basic idea behind this technology is to allow secondary users (SUs) to access licensed spectrum bands as far as they do not cause any harmful interference with the primary users (PUs). The unlicensed spectrum has two major advantages i.e., one is they are fast and cheap in deployment and other is unlicensed spectrum is shared. As sharing is essential for wireless networks, many wireless communication standards are aimed to use unlicensed ISM band because of complete absence of user restrictions and it is easier to coexist with existing wireless networks than to allocate new empty spectrum. Cognitive radio technology is being used in WRAN developed by IEEE 802.22 working group give broadband services in rural areas having the performance statistics comparable to DSL and cable modems by utilizing white spaces on non-interference basis.